The challenge is for the jury and prosecution to find out the truth, the whole . The falsity of the perjurious statement may be established either by the testimony of two independent witnesses or by one witness and independent corroborating evidence that is inconsistent with the innocence of the accused. trial and may subject Marcus to conviction of this offense. In a sense, a person must make a false statement with an intent to defraud. A sworn declaration (also called a sworn statement or a statement under penalty of perjury) is a document that recites facts pertinent to a legal proceeding.It is very similar to an affidavit but is not witnessed and sealed by an official such as a notary public.Instead, the person making the declaration signs a separate endorsement paragraph at the end of the document, stating that the . Stat. As a general rule, the more significant the contrast is between the two statements, and the more material the impeachment point to be made is to your theory of the case, the more prominent a role this part of the cross must play. The evening of the grand jury investigation, the president appeared on national TV and admitted, Indeed, I did have a relationship with Ms. Lewinsky that was not appropriate. Isabel thereafter buys an expensive watch, has it wrapped, walks up to the judge, and offers it to him as a gift. 14-209, 2011), with a potential sentencing enhancement for committing perjury that causes another to be sentenced to prison or the death penalty (Ga. Code tit. And cross points, like all trial points, impact most when impressing best, which means at the moment we present them not later, on closing, no matter how great we are told, and believe, we are. Weiler, 323 U.S. at 610. Isabel and the umpire probably have not committed bribery in this case. The jury knew where the defense attorney was going and they understood the soft impeachment. After the deposition, he was involved in an effort to get Ms. Lewinsky a federal job outside Washington, DC (Historyplace.com, 2011). Marcuss admission that he was lying is not a retraction that could serve as a defense because it was not made until the lie was about to be exposed. 234 (1998), accessed May 5, 2011, http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17399056576949304157&q= State+v.+Kimber+48&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5. The recognition of multiple goals of cross-examination is nothing new. Executing a clean impeachment requires careful planning and preparation. Content is out of sync. The criminal offense of perjury consists of making a false statement under oath, either in writing or verbally, that one knows is false, and that is material to the proceedings in which the statement is made. For example, the witness said something different to the police officer than she did at a preliminary hearing or the witness said something different on direct exam than in a prior statement. Timing (when you learn of the impeachment opportunity). Perjury generally requires a false statement that is material, which means that it substantially affected or could substantially affect the outcome of the proceeding (Mo. If Marcuss jurisdiction criminalizes perjury by inconsistent statements, Marcus could most likely be prosecuted for this offense. Ann. N.Y. Identify the statements you believe to be perjury. questions about prior statement). Related to DECLARATION UNDER PENALTY OF PERJURY. In every case, preparation is the key and keep your clients story moving forward first. The reasons for this type of unpredicted impeachable statement are many: the witness is simply nervous or truly forgetful, was not thoroughly prepared, is trying to back pedal, or is a flat out lying. The prosecution does not need to prove which statement is false for this offense. Stat. Rev. Subdivision (d)(1)(A). The biggest issues commonly encountered in any perjury prosecution are proving the validity of the oath, the defendants criminal intent, the materiality of the false statement, and any requirement of corroborative evidence. Some jurisdictions have a requirement of corroborative evidence for perjury, which necessitates the testimony of two witnesses to support a conviction, similar to a treason conviction (Tex. In addition, based on these facts, Isabels connection to the judge is only through her perjury prosecution, so her act appears calculated to influence his decision in that case, especially because the watch is expensive and not merely a token. Penal Code 38.06, 2011). The flourish of ending with a statement that calls into question the very essence of the witness testimony, that nothing the witness said can be believed can be advocacy at its best. Examples of inconsistent statement Marcus's jurisdiction criminalizes perjury by inconsistent statements, Marcus could most likely be prosecuted for this offense. Thus both Isabel and the judge may be subject to prosecution for and conviction of this offense, and the judges acquittal of Isabel will ease the prosecutors burden in proving the specific intent or purposely or general intent or knowingly to enter into an agreement corruptly influencing the decision making in this case. Check your answers using the answer key at the end of the chapter. 18 U.S.C. Note that a prosecutor is required to prove beyond a reasonable doubt Isabels specific intent or purposely or general intent or knowingly to enter into an agreement with the judge influencing his decision, which is challenging even under the obvious circumstances apparent in this case. Bribery is typically graded as a felony (N.Y. If so, is the witness lying about everything or just some things? subornation of perjury. Retraction as a Defense. The federal statute requires that a person acted willfully, while Ohios statute says the person must have acted knowingly. Defendants may claim that they believed the statement to be true, and that they therefore did not have the required mental state. The obstruction of justice conviction resulted from Bondss evasive answer to the question of whether his personal trainer had ever injected him with steroids (Macur, J., 2011). If known to members of the prosecution team, it casts doubt on the honesty of the entire case. Otherwise, I would want to stick the impeachment somewhere in the middle of the cross-examination, bookended by better cross points at the beginning and end of the cross. Ultimately, we won the case because the technician made a statement that was not backed by science. You can reap all kinds of benefits by starting cross with a strong impeachment. 162.265, accessed May 6, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/oregon/162-offenses-against-the-state-and/162.265.html. 1621, accessed May 5, 2011, http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/718/usc_sec_18_00001621-000-.html. This was confusing to me and it had to be to the jury as well. Assume for a moment that at trial, on direct examination, the Plaintiff testifies that when he went through the light it was green; however, when the Plaintiff testified during his deposition he testified that he couldnt remember what color the light was. Subornation of perjury is an offence under section 333 (1) of the Crimes Act 1900, which carries a maximum penalty of 7 years in prison. As to significance, when comparing the inconsistency, are we talking black and white, or beige and grey? Every plot must be elaborated to its closing. A plaintiff must serve a statement preserving the right to seek punitive damages before taking a default, when the request for default judgment includes punitive damages under Civil Code section 3294. (a) When a person charged with perjury or false swearing has made inconsistent material statements under oath and affecting the same matter or transaction, all the several inconsistent material statements may be charged in different counts of the same indictment or information. If you need the jury to hear a few points from the witness that are helpful to your case first, then save the impeachment for later in the cross-examination. In the face of mounting evidence that she had used PEDs, Jones pleaded guilty to two charges of perjury in 2007 and admitted that she had used the designer steroid The Clear. A few years ago, I watched the trial of a couple accused of 1st Degree assault by their dog on an elderly woman. It is a public perception that perjury is a hard crime to prove. It, 4too, is a federal crime if the perjury induced is a federal crime. Most state statutes or state common law, in states that allow common-law crimes, define perjury as a false material statement (criminal act), made with the specific intent or purposely to deceive, or the general intent or knowingly that the statement was false, in a judicial or official proceeding (attendant circumstance), under oath (attendant circumstance) (Ga. Code tit. Even under oath, if the witness lies concerning an immaterial subject that is irrelevant to the proceeding, it's not classified as perjury. In federal cases, Rule 801(d)(1)(A) addresses prior inconsistent statements. The Model Penal Code criminalizes as bribery the act of conferring, offering, agreeing to confer, soliciting, accepting, or agreeing to accept any pecuniary (which means monetary) benefit in exchange for a public servant, party official, voters decision, opinion, recommendation, vote, or other exercise of discretion (Model Penal Code 240.1(1)). The Model Penal Code has a similar provision (Model Penal Code 241.1(5)). Ohios perjury law, for example, defines the offense as knowingly mak[ing] a false statement under oath or affirmation. It further provides that a mistaken belief that a false statement is not material is not a defense. Mo. In this video, President Clinton denies that he had sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky: President Clinton Apologizes to the Nation. 16 16-10-70, accessed May 5, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/georgia/16/16-10-70.html. Usually, this happens a few minutes into the cross. Eliciting facts, opinions, and conclusions from a witness for the other side that are helpful to your case is very powerful, and the last thing we want to do is damage the credibility of that witness before we elicit those facts, opinions, and conclusions. You may be able to fill out a form online or talk to someone over the phone. Penal Law 180.00, 2011). The crime of bribery is often extended to apply to persons other than public officials, such as employees, agents, or fiduciaries for the purpose of influencing the bribed individuals on-the-job conduct (N.Y. Like almost everything else in law and advocacy, of course, placement of an impeachment by prior inconsistent statement depends on the tone and purpose of any cross-examination. However, even in that circumstance, I would only start the cross with that impeachment by prior inconsistent statement if you think that is one of your best points. the statement is one of identification of a person the declarant made after perceiving that person. At The Beginning: If EVERYTHING about this witnesss testimony is just wrong in some fashion, and you need to set the stage for discrediting the lens through which the witness testified, then starting off with some form of impeachment with a prior inconsistent statement, followed by an attack on perception, bias, prejudice, corruption or interest can be very effective. 90.608 (1) recognizes that one may impeach a witness by introducing statements of the witness which are inconsistent with the witness' present testimony. Although Marcus tried to procure Janelle to commit perjury, with specific intent or purposely, Janelle did not cooperate and did not commit the perjury. In criminal cases, government investigators often talk to witnesses while out on the field. Subornation of perjury is also graded as a felony (N.C. Gen. Stat. Marcus made a falsestatement, under a validly administered oath, in a judicialproceeding, with knowledgeof its falsity. In this example, both the judge and Isabel have likely committed bribery because most states criminalize the conferring, offering, and accepting and receiving a bribe as the criminal act elements. The predicate necessary for impeachment is not new. Rarely is a cross-examination limited to an attack on credibility there are often multiple goals which may include eliciting positive/supportive facts and ultimately telling or reinforcing the story the witness examiner is presenting. Example 1: Bob is called to testify in a robbery case. (1) Prior Inconsistent Statement of Declarant-Witness. Most jurisdictions criminalize subornation of perjury, which is typically procuring another to commit perjury (criminal act) with specific intent or purposely, or general intent or knowingly, and factually and legally causing the resulting harm that perjury is in fact committed (N.C. Gen. Stat. Fla. Stat. At early common law, bribery was the receiving or offering any undue reward by or to any person in a public office in order to influence his or her behavior in office and induce him or her to act contrary to the known rules of honesty and integrity (Legal definition of bribery, 2011). Choose a delete action Empty this pageRemove this page and its subpages. Typically, it is not a defense to perjury that the defendant did not know that the statement was material (Mo. For example, perjury covers statements under oath. Youve minimized risk by locking in your must-have questions. Rev. Although the judge did not accept Isabels gift, most states criminalize as bribery the offer of any benefit, so the act of bribery is complete when Isabel proffers the watch. If I can argue that the prior statement is the truth (either exception to hearsay or not hearsay, such as a party statement), then I bring it out in phase one. States and the federal government exercise broad latitude in enacting statutes that criminalize interference with any aspect of law enforcement procedure or the prosecution and conviction of criminal offenders. There was no doubt where it happened, when it happened or how it happened. Prepare hard, be confident, listen well, and trust yourself, and youll do just fine. Some jurisdictions criminalize perjury by inconsistent or contradictory statements, which is slightly different from criminal perjury (Ala. Code 13-10-104, 2011).3 Perjury by inconsistent statements is easier to prove than traditional perjury because the prosecution can simply offer evidence that the defendant made statements that are inconsistent, in a judicial proceeding, after taking a validly administered oath. Bribery can also cover members of a state legislature (Cal. Even the decorated detectives spoke about the confession and how the defendant said he did it because he loved her. ! Penal Code 93, http://law.onecle.com/california/penal/93.html. A person took an oath to truthfully testify, declare, depose, or certify, verbally or in writing; The person made a statement that was not true; The person knew the statement to be untrue; The person made the false statement willfully; and. (2) offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. Stat. Stat. You may want it to be the last thing (or almost the last thing) your fact finder hears from the witness. The two are very similar, but false declarations tend to be easier to prove. When a state legislator (Cal. Atlantas John Marshall Law School. Bribery is often compared to extortion, yet extortion is considered a crime of threatened force or violence, while bribery involves financial inducement (U.S. v. Adcock, 2011). Thus the harm element of subornation of perjury is lacking, and Marcus can be prosecuted only for attempted subornation of perjury or solicitation to commit perjury, rather than the completed offense. There is no reason to undermine the witnesses credibility when they are about to agree with you. Before you begin your cross, it may help to refer to your closing argument. Statements inconsistent with the statement the . Review the example with Isabel in Section 13 Example of Bribery. First, to the extent the witness will testify to any facts or opinions that are helpful to my case, I would want to elicit that testimony before doing anything that might damage the credibility of the witness. Once you decide that, its easier to find the right sequence for the impeachment. If the witness denies the statement, you impeach. criminalizes perjury by inconsistent statements, Marcus could most likely be prosecuted for this offense. The punishment for perjury under state law varies from state to state but is typically a felony. Penal Law 200.10, http://law.onecle.com/new-york/penal/PEN0200.10_200.10.html. My short answer is that there is no hard and fast rule. U.S. v. Gaudin, 515 U.S. 506 (1995), accessed May 5, 2011, http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12281686524757008977&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr. A statement is counted as perjury only if it was given while the witness was under oath and in front of a court or tribunal that has the mandate to carry out the investigation. The statement may be served as part of the statement of damages required by Code of Civil Procedure section 425.11. One last point, an essential one, is the matter of tone. The declarant testifies at the trial or hearing and is subject to cross-examination concerning the statement, and the statement is (A) inconsistent with the declarant's testimony, and was given under oath subject to the penalty of perjury at a trial, hearing, or other proceeding, or in a deposition, or (B) consistent with the declarant's Penalties for a Perjury Conviction. Bribery is typically graded as a felony, with enhancements for a bribe that is a large sum of money or bribery that results in incarceration for a felony, along with a disqualification from office. place it chronologically in the flow of the cross? Penal Code 86, http://law.onecle.com/california/penal/86.html. Webster's New World Law Synonyms: bearing false witness lying under oath willful falsehood violation of an oath false statement untruthfulness I once was crossing the author of one of the FBIs books on evidence. If the primary purpose is to show the witness is untrustworthy, begin cross with the impeachment. People perjure themselves if they make a false or misleading statement under oath, or sign a document that they know to contain false or misleading statements. If statement is a prior inconsistent statement given by the declarant under penalty of perjury, then. So the use of prior inconsistent statements dovetails with my ability to use it in coordination with my phases. n. the crime of encouraging, inducing or assisting another in the commission of perjury, which is knowingly telling an untruth under oath. I usually lean towards impeaching a witness with a prior inconsistent statement during the chapter of the cross examination that relates to the impeachment. There are also inconsistent statements you can count on. Federal law ( 18 USC 1621 ), for example, states that anyone found guilty of the crime will be fined or imprisoned for up to five years. Not a second longer. One of the most common forms of impeachment during cross-examination at trial is with a prior inconsistent statement, such as deposition or affidavit testimony.The objective of impeachment is to establish that the witness is not a trustworthy witness, hence the reason it is referred to as . Analyze perjury and subornation of perjury grading. In modern times, many criminal statutes define bribery as conferring, offering, agreeing to confer, or soliciting, accepting, or agreeing to accept any benefit upon a public official (criminal act) with the specific intent or purposely or the general intent or knowingly to form an agreement or understanding that the public officials vote, opinion, judgment, action, decision, or exercise of discretion will be influenced by the benefit (N.Y. Identify the issues commonly encountered in a perjury prosecution. 2.7. Cal. For the love, no matter when the inconsistent statement comes in, dont forget to argue the significance of this golden nugget for fact finder. Despite early emphasis on cross-examination as being needed to expose mendacity, Dean Wigmore viewed cross-examination as the essence of the trial and truth-seeking process in the United States. I am a believer that every witness provided by the opposing counsel can advance the theory of my case. The reason I do that is if it is important and material enough to impeach about, then it should already have its own chapter or section in my cross examination. (1) the conviction has been the subject of a pardon, annulment, certificate of rehabilitation, or other equivalent procedure based on a finding that the person has been rehabilitated, and the person has not been convicted of a later crime punishable by death or by imprisonment for more than one year; or The Model Penal Code grades perjury as a felony of the third degree (Model Penal Code 241.1(1)). (1) A person is guilty of tampering with a witness if he or she attempts to induce a witness or person he or she has reason to believe is about to be called as a witness in any official proceeding or a person whom he or she has reason to believe may have information relevant to a criminal investigation or the abuse or neglect of a minor child to: Perjury is generally graded as a felony (N.C. Gen. Stat. Or now?), ending on the impeachment can help further the goals of cross. Answer the following questions. 162.295, 2011), and tampering with a witness (18 U.S.C. Define the elements of bribery, identify the primary difficulty in a prosecution for this offense, and analyze bribery grading. Two surviving victims gave gruesome details of the many hours of torture and the steps the defendant took to set up their deaths. Marcus made two inconsistent statements while under a validly administered oath in Or better yet (if you have it), cross the witness into a corner forcing them to admit that when it comes to their inconsistencies the best they can hope for is that the jury takes their word for it and then follow through with your safety net: a strong character impeachment point for untruthfulness, or (even better) impeachment with a prior conviction for a crime of dishonesty. Penal Code 129, accessed May 5, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/california/penal/129.html. On cross, like Coach Valvano, our mission at base is to survive and advance. Now, if that is a fact of consequence, then you would assume that it would already be a part of the cross-examination you were intending to do of the Plaintiff, and at some point you were planning on asking the Plaintiff something like, you cant remember what color the light was, can you? If that is the case, then it would be bizarre to begin your cross by impeaching the witness with that stand alone fact, then launch into your pre-planned cross-examination, and then arrive back at that fact later on in the course of the story youre trying to tell on cross-examination with that witness. For one thing, perjury convictions must be based on evidence from at least two witnesses; false declarations can be . If I had evidence that the witness actually had a personal relationship with my opposing party, I would start the cross there. 14-210, accessed May 6, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/north-carolina/14-criminal-law/14-210.html. Penal Law 180.00, accessed May 6, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/new-york/penal/PEN0180.00_180.00.html. Like primacy, recency is also your friend. You must consider strategic and psychological factors in making your decision. Ann. The defendant went from spending the remainder of his life in prison to just a few years. Marcus's statement was materialbecause, if believed, it would have helped exonerate Lindsay in her civil case. Thus, as a practitioner, one needs to make the right choice based on the circumstances of the case. And if the opportunity arises during cross, again, do your math: how significant was the inconsistency, and how material? 575.040, accessed May 5, 2011, http://www1.law.umkc.edu/suni/CrimLaw/calendar/Class_4_Mo_perjury.htm. Evidence that the defendant has a criminal record may be admissible solely to impeach. Sex crimes against children. 18 Pa. Cons. If Marcuss jurisdiction Add to this example and assume that the judge graciously accepts Isabels gift and thereafter rules in her favor, acquitting her of perjury. This strategy is not without risk. At the trial the prosecution need not prove which statement is false." ^3. Tex. Cal. Most state laws have similar provisions, but judges typically have the discretion to use . After training your witness to answer yes or no, its easier to execute a strong impeachment. Associate Director of the Center for Advocacy and Dispute Resolution In Marcuss criminal perjury by inconsistent statements prosecution, the prosecutor need only offer evidence of the inconsistent statements to the trier of fact. Anthony, the Macys civil trial attorney, cross-examines Marcus, and forces him to admit that he saw Lindsay steal the necklace, and that he was lying previously. Stat. If I want to contradict the direct, I bring it out in phase two. (1) in the course of one or more official proceedings the person makes two or more sworn statements which are irreconcilably inconsistent to the degree that one of them is necessarily false; (2) the . The Model Penal Code has a similar provision (Model Penal Code 241.1(3)). N.Y. Charged with multiple felonies including two counts of attempted murder, the attorney did not object to a single prosecution witness. The statement was given to intentionally mislead the court and the witness was aware of the effect of the statement ie the witness knew the statement was untrue. No matter which strategy you decide on, you must practice the steps to be efficient and clear. Penal Code 92, accessed May 6, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/california/penal/92.html. For instance, the statement "The trains are always . Stat. 1621.) In addition to criminal charges, lawyers may be subject to discipline under attorney ethics rules for coaching or persuading a witness to commit perjury. Statements by children. In the book, the author wrote that under no circumstances should an agent or technician testify a certain way because it was not backed by science. Rev. This section analyzes perjury, bribery, and obstruction of justice, along with the issues commonly encountered when prosecuting these offenses. Marcus made a false statement, under a validly administered oath, in a judicial proceeding, with knowledge of its falsity. 16, 16-10-70, 2011). It shall constitute perjury whenever any person, having taken an oath required by law, or made an equivalent affirmation, swears or affirms any fact or state of facts material to the issue or question in controversy; and thereafter in the same or other proceedings, where such matter is material to the issue or question in controversy, swears or Add to this example and assume that Marcus begs Janelle, another witness in Lindsays conversion trial, to say that she did not see him at Macys the day Lindsay stole the necklace. Or. The specific act that constitutes the crime of perjury is not the false statement itself, but rather the oath or affirmation that the statement is true. Some typical examples of obstruction of justice are as follows: giving false identification to a law enforcement officer (720 ILCS 5/31-4.5, 2011), impersonating a law enforcement officer (Fla. Stat. That being said, lets assume that the fact that the Plaintiff testified to during direct-examination that the light was green when he went through it is not a material fact, and that you do not intend on including it as part of your cross-examination. Everything was caught on video. At The End: Sometimes, the witness has some facts to confirm but also has testified on direct to things that are just incorrect. In addition, many jurisdictions have a provision that witnesses who refuse to take an oath shall have the option of making a nonreligous affirmation that has the same legal effect as the oath (42 Pa. Cons. Chapter 837 PERJURY 837.021 Perjury by contradictory statements. Does it make our theory of the case (or break theirs), sufficiently undermining the witness testimony or the witness themself, or does it fall somewhere short of that mark? In those circumstances delaying the impeachment until it fits naturally into the cross-examiners story will be appropriate. A related offense is the crime of subornation of perjury, which typically involves coaching or persuading a person to commit perjury. Penal Code 88, accessed May 7, 2011, http://law.onecle.com/california/penal/88.html. A safer strategy is to wait until you can control the witness and after youve elicited your concessions before impeaching and creating hostility with your witness. Stat. A hearsay statement that a witness disliked the defendant may be admitted to show the witness's bias. Even if the testimony being impeached was not at the climax of the direct or was not especially devastating, the cross should start with the impeachment if the witness is likely to be uncooperative and a tight, controlling attack is needed to rein them in early. Penal Code has a similar provision ( Model Penal Code 129, accessed May 5, 2011, http //law.onecle.com/new-york/penal/PEN0180.00_180.00.html! Cross-Examiners story will be appropriate on, you impeach trial of a state legislature (.. 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Stat: //law.onecle.com/california/penal/129.html this happens a few minutes into the cross-examiners story will be.! Perjury by inconsistent statements, Marcus could most likely be prosecuted for offense. To be perjury, Marcus could most likely be prosecuted for this offense convictions be! Can count on story will be appropriate they believed the statement is false. & quot ; the trains always... The right choice based on the circumstances of the cross examination that relates to the.... On evidence from at least two witnesses ; false declarations can be be prosecuted for this.... Until it fits naturally into the cross-examiners story will be appropriate where it happened or it... For one thing, perjury convictions must be based on evidence from at two. Refer to your closing argument: //law.onecle.com/california/penal/88.html are very similar, but judges typically have the required state... 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Recognition of multiple goals example of perjury by inconsistent statements cross that there is no hard and fast Rule fact finder hears the... The jury and prosecution to find out the truth of the chapter of many... Coaching or persuading a person must have acted knowingly show the witness is untrustworthy, begin with., defines the offense as knowingly mak [ ing ] a false statement under oath or.! Me and it had to be efficient and clear so, is key! It out in phase two isabel and the steps the defendant took to set up their deaths a administered... Torture and the steps the defendant went from spending the remainder of his life in prison just! In the flow of the matter of tone strategic and psychological factors in making your.! Again, do your math: how significant was the inconsistency, are we talking black and white or. Of Civil Procedure section 425.11 ultimately, we won the case because the technician made a false is! Truth of the prosecution need not prove which statement is false for this offense point, an essential one is., are we talking black and white, or beige and grey the and. ; ^3 significant was the inconsistency, and trust yourself, and trust yourself, and youll do just.. Of my case cross examination that relates to the Nation was not backed by science that statement. Detectives spoke about the confession and how the defendant did not know that statement. A related offense is the matter asserted public perception that perjury is a prior statements! It May help to refer to your closing argument at base is to survive and advance with. Your math: how significant was the inconsistency, are we talking black and,... Truth, the attorney did not have the required mental state you May be admissible to. This page and its subpages from spending the remainder of his life in prison to just a years!: how significant was the inconsistency, and that they therefore did not the. With knowledge of its falsity to witnesses while out on the honesty of the chapter of the chapter subpages!
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